SEMANTICS - NOTATION FOR SIMPLE PROPOSITION

NOTATION FOR SIMPLE PROPOSITION

Arranged to Fulfill One of The Assignments of

SEMANTICS Lecture Handled by

                                                        Drs.Ec. Aris Munandar, M.Pd

By:

MERY ARIANSYAH

English Department / Semester 4

1235511179

INSTITUTE OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SUMENEP ASSOCIATION OF INDONESIAN TEACHERS

TRUNOJOYO STREET, GEDUNGAN - SUMENEP

 APRIL, 2014

TABLE OF CONTENT

Preface------------------------------------------------------------------------ ii

A.   Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------- 1

B.   Discussion

        Logic provides----------------------------------------------------------- 2

C.   Conclusion--------------------------------------------------------------- 7

References-------------------------------------------------------------------- 8

i

P R E F A C E

The following pages are based on a report of a book Semantics a course book by James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, and Michael B. Smith. Moreover, it also based on another references that the writer have browsed in internet before.

This paper “ Notation For Simple Proposition” is written in order to to Fulfill One of The Assignments of  SEMANTICS Lecture which is handled by  Drs.Ec. Aris Munandar, M.Pd.. In the long run, the students themselves can understand easier the matter that is explained in this paper.

The writer is fully aware that this paper is so far from being perfect, that is why any constructive criticism is welcome to improve the quality if this paper.

Sumenep, March 28, 2014

The Writer,

        Mery Ariansyah

                                    ii

A.    INTRODUCTION

Before we learn what a notation for simple proposition is, it would be better if we know what a proposition is first. A proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs. The state of affairs typically  involves persons or things referred to by expressions in the sentence and the situation or action are involved. True proposition correspond to facts, in the ordinary sense of the word fact. False proposition do not correspond to facts.

Proposition explicitly mentioned declarative sentences, but proposition are clearly involved the meanings of other types of sentences, such as interrogatives, which are used to ask question, and imperatives, which are used to convey orders.

In saying, “Mery can do this job” a speaker asserts the proposition that Mery can do this job. In saying “can Mery do this job?”, he mention the same proposition but merely question its truth. We say that corresponding declaratives and interrogatives (and imperatives) have the same propositional content.

A proposition is an abstraction grasped by the mind of an individual person. In this sense, a proposition is an object of thought. Do not equate proposition with thoughts, because thoughts are usually held to be private, personal, mental processes, whereas propositions are public in the sense that the same proposition is accesible to different person: different individuals can grasp the same proposition. Furthermore, a proposition is not a process, whereas a thought can be seen as a process going on in an individual’s mind.

B.     DISCUSSION

Logic provides a notation for unambiguously representing the essentials of proposition. Logic has in fact been extremely selective in the parts of language it has dealt with; but the parts it has dealt with it has treated in great depth.

The notation which is adopted here is closer to English, and therefore easier for beginners to handle, than the rather more technical notations found in some logic books and generally in the advanced literature of logic. It is assumed that simple proposition, like simple sentences, have just one predicator, which is written in capital letters. While the arguments of the predicator are represented by single lower-case letters, putting one of these letters  before the predicator (like the subject of an English sentence) and the others (if there are others) after  the predicator, usually in the preffered English word order. Anything that is not a predicator or a referring expression is simply omitted from logical notation.

Example

1.      Mery wrote would be represented by the formula m WROTE

2.      Buggi is a cat by b CAT

3.      Indina introduced Ayu to Faizal by i INTRODUCE a f

These formula are very bare, stripped down to nothing but names and predicators. The reasons for eliminating elements such as forms of the verb be, articles (a, the), tense markers (past, present), and certain preposition (e.g. Indina introduced Ayu to Faizal) are partly a matter of serious principle and partly a matter of convenience. The most serious principle involved is the traditional concentration of logic on truth.

Articles, a and the, do not affect the truth of the propositions expressed by simple sentences. Accordingly, they are simply omitted from the relatively basic logical formulae we are dealing with here. Some preposition, e.g. at, in, on, under, are also omitted.

Looak at these examples below

Mery is looking for Anton

Mery is looking at Anton                                                                                           

We treat expressions like look for, look at, look after as single predicates when they contain prepositions that contribute in an important way to the sense of the sentence. This natural, as many such expression are indeed synonymous with single word predicates, e.g. seek, regard, supervise.

Tense (e.g. past, present) is not represented in our logical formulae, and neither is any form of the verb be. The word than is also ommited in comparative sentences like in Mery is longer than Ayu (m LONGER a). The omission of tense is actually not justifiable on the grounds that tense does not contribute to the sense of a sentence.

In our logical formulae, we will represent the identity predicate with an “equals” sign =, and we will simply omit anything corresponding to any other use of the verb be.

Look at these example below;

Mery Ariansyah is Wondergirl                        ma = w

Mery Ariansyah is a teacher                            ma TEACHER

Mr Joy was a singer                                        mj SINGER

Mr Gee was a driver                                       mg DRIVER

Mr Joy was Mr Gee                                        mj = mg

We have been using lower case letters (or sequences of letters), such as w and ma, as names in logical formulae. Logical formulae for simple proposition are very simple in structure. It is important to adhere ti this simple structure, as it embodies a strict definition of the structure of simple proposition.

Every simple proposition is representable by a single PREDICATOR, drawn from the predicates in the language, and a number of ARGUMENTS, drawn from the names in the language. This implies, among other things, that no formula for a simple proposition can have two (or more) predicators, and it cannot have anything which is neither a predicate nor a name.

Look at these example below;

r love j is a well formed formula for a simple proposition

r j is not a well formed formula, because it contains no predicator

r IDOLIZE ADORE r is not a well formed formula for a simple proposition, because it contains two predicators

r and k LOVE j is not a well formed formula for a simple proposition, because it contains something (and) which is neither a predicator nor a name.

In order to make you know more about this matter, you can try this activity with using the rule that is stated below.

Rule : A simple formula consisting of a name and a one place predicate is true of a situation in which the referent of the name is member of the extension of the predicate.

Below is a picture of a tiny fragment of a universe of discourse (a situation). In the picture we have labelled individuals with their names (Al, Ed, and Mo).

The formula ed STAND is true of this situation (corresponding to the sentences Ed is standing)

The formula mo CAT is false of this situation.

So, it is time for you to practice. In relation to the situation depicted above, are the following formula true (T) or false (F)?

1.      al MAN                                               T / F

2.      al WOMAN                                        T / F

3.      mo SIT                                                T / F

4.      ed STAND                                          T / F

5.      ed EAT                                               T / F

A system of logic must have its own “semantics”, a set of principles relating its formulae to the situations they describe. The rule given above for simple formulae consisting of a name and a one place predicate is part of such a set of principles, a “semantics for logic”. Logicians use the term “semantics” in a much narrower way; for logicians, the semantics of logic consists only in relating (parts of) formulae to entities outside the notational system, e.g. to referents and extensions.

It is very important to have this extensional component in logical system, as it provides a constant reminder that logical formulae can only be fully understood to the extent that they are systematically related to some world (universe of discourse) external to the national itself.

C.    CONCLUSION

We have presented a logical notation for simple propositions. A well formed formula for a simple proposition contains a single PREDICATOR, drawn from the predicates in the language, and a number of ARGUMENTS, drawn from the names in the language. The notation we have given contains no elements corresponding to articles such as a an the, certain preposition, and certain instances of the verb be, as these make no contribution to the truth conditions of the sentences containing them. We have also, for convenience only, omitted any representation of tense in our logical formulae.

REFERENCES

Hurford, James R., and Brendan Heasley.1984. Semantics: a course book.        Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

http://eweb.furman.edu/~wrogers/simpleproposition/phcons.htm

http://www.usingenglish.com/articles/semantics-comprehension.html

The Summary of The Introduction of Literature Lecture

The Summary of The Introduction of Literature Lecture

By :     MERY ARIANSYAH

Fourth Semester of English Department

Introduction of Literature

What is literature?

Literature is written artistic works that consist of a high and lasting artistic value, which is made by human. They can express everything in their mind in order to create a good and interesting literary works, such as real human life, creating fiction story to entertain the reader, etc. In creating a literary work the author or the writer should know about how to create a good literary work. They should know about how to develop a theme into a good arrangement of story. It was supported by the intrinsic elements of literature. Moreover, intrinsic element of literature can help the reader in understanding more about the literature itself. When they read one of literary work, automatically they will try to gained what  going to say by the author is.

Intrinsic Elements of Literature

1.      Character

Character is the certain combination of qualities in a person or place that makes them different from others. The meaning of character in a story is a person represented in a film, play, or story. Character development is the change that a character undergoes from the beginning of a story to the end.

Character can be main , secondary or third. In a literary work a character is developed by action, speech, appearance, other character’s comment, author’s comment, and unity of character and action. Chraterization is the choices an author makes to reveal a character’s personality, such as appearance, actions, dialogue, and motivations.

Therea three types of characters:

1)      Protagonist

2)      Antagonist

3)      Minor character

Characters are described as being round character or flat character.

The character change:

1)      Dynamic character are rounded characters that change

2)      Static (stock) characters are round or flat characters that do not change during the story.

2.      Plot

Plot is the order in which things move and happen in a story. Te plot is  the arrangement of ideas andor incidents that make up a story. The story have goo chronological order only if the story relates events in the order in which they happened.

The pattern of action are:

1)      Fore shadowing is when the writer clues the reader in to something that will eventually occur in the story. It may be explicit or implied.

2)      Suspense is the tension that the writer uses to create a feeling of discomfort about the unknown.

3)      Conflict is the struggle between opposing forces.

4)      Exposition is the backgroud information regarding the setting, characters, plot.

5)      Rising action is the process of the story follows as it builds to its main conflict.

6)      Crisis is a significant turning point in the story that determines how it must end.

7)      Denouement is the way the story turns out.

The types of plots:

1)      Progressive plots: have a central climax followed by denouement

2)      Episodical plots: have one incident or short episode linked to another by a common character or unifying theme.

3.      Setting

Setting is the time and the place in which the action of a book, film, play, etc happen. The setting provides the historical and cultural context for characters. It often can symbolize the emotional state of characters. There are six kinds of setting:

1)      Backdrop setting is when the setting is unimportant for the story and the story could take place in any setting.

2)      Integral setting is when the action, character, or theme are influenced by the time and place.

3)      Functions of setting

4)      Setting as antagonist, the characters must resolve conflict created by setting.

5)      Setting that iluminates character, it can help the characters find themselves and grow as individuals.

6)      Setting as symbolism, a symbol is a person, place, object,  situation, or action which operates on two levels of meaning, the literal, and the figurative, or suggestive.

4.      Theme

Theme is the main point of the story. It can be said that theme is all of the thing that dealt with the story from the beginning to end. The theme is an idea, that convey what will happen in that literary works, who is an actor, how is the condition of that actor, waht will be a problems in that literary works, how to solved it, etc. The idea itself usually came from human real life or fiction. There are three kinds of theme:

1)      Explicit theme is when the writer states the theme openly and clearly. Primary explicit themes are common in children’s literature, as the author wants to be sure the reader finds it.

2)      Implicit theme is implied theme.

3)      Multiple and secondary theme. Since a story speaks to us on our own ondividual level of varying experiences, many individual themes will be obtained from a good piece of literature.

5.      Point of view

Point of view is determined by the author’s description of characters, setting, and events told to the reader throughout the story. They are:

1)      Narrator, the person telling the story who may or may not be a character in the story.

2)      First person, narrator participates in action but sometimes has limited knowledge/vision.

3)      Second person, narrator adresses the reader directly as though she is part of the story. (For example, “You write the short letter. And you are looking for someone around you.....”)

4)      Third person (objective), narrator is unidentified. Does not assume character’s perspective andis not a character in the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply the meaning.

5)      Omniscient, all knowing narrator ( mulitiple perspectives). The narrator knows waht each character is thingking and feeling, not just waht they are doing throughout the story.

6.      Style

Style is how the author says something, the choice of words and the use of language, sentence costruction, imagery not what the author says. The choice of words and the use of language could be seen from the dialogue between characters. Moreover, vocabulary words that used in literary works are connotation and denotation. Connotation is the associative or emotional meaning of a word. Denotation is the dictionary meaning of word.

Some terms of sentence structure that used in literary works:

1)      Figurative language (to express meaning beyond the literal meaning ot the word itself)

It could be: metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification.

2)      Figure of speech is an expression used in a non literal context to add intensity of meaning.

3)      Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.

4)      Allusion is a figure of speech that refers to something in our common understanding, our past or our literature.

5)      Symbol is a symbol is a person, place, object,  situation, or action which operates on two levels of meaning, the literal, and the figurative, or suggestive.

6)      Puns or word play

Often used to add emphasis and break upmonotonous rhythm.

(Blood boil, mind melt, well loved)

7)      Devices of sounds

Devices of sounds consist of  (onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhythm). Rhythm often thought of as a poem’s timing. It is the juxtaposition of stressed and unstressedbeats in a poem.

Meter, measure of rhythm in a poem

Speaker, the person delivering the poem

Structure (poetry), the patern organization of a poem.

Symbolism, when an object is meant to be representative of something.

Tone, the implied attitude towards the subject of the poem.